Stress biomarkers and reproduction in fish. Review.

Fish exposed to stressful conditions both in the wild and in culture may differ in the extent of their physiological responses and reproductive consequences to stressors. A wide array of biomarkers, used to demonstrate exposure and effects of stressors, has been briefly reviewed, especially in relation to reproduction. Furthermore, we stress the importance of antioxidants as stress biomarkers and propose to assay vitamin E, the major antioxidant in reproduction, during the different reproductive phases in sea bass.