Nationwide serological survey and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama) in Italy

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are worldwide distributed protozoa, recognized as major causes of economic losses in livestock production due to reproductive failure. Camelids can also serve as intermediate hosts for these protozoa. Research on these parasites in South American Camelids (SAC) in Europe is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence and distribution of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in SAC in Italy and investigate risk factors for infection applying a structured online questionnaire filled in by owners. A total of 506 SAC sera (486 alpacas, Vicugna pacos, and 20 llamas, Lama glama) were tested to detect antibodies against T. gondii and N. caninum using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), and results were confirmed with immunoblot. Seroprevalences of 34.8 % (176/506) for T. gondii, with 33.1 % (161/486) for alpacas and 75.0 % (15/20) for llamas, and 5.7 % (29/506) for N. caninum, with 5.6 % (27/486) for alpacas and 10.0 % (2/20) for llamas were found. Simultaneous presence of antibodies against T. gondii and N. caninum was detected in 3.6 % (18/506) of the samples. The variables older age and llama species were identified as risk factors (p < 0.05) for T. gondii, while the presence of dogs and fertility disorders were associated with N. caninum seropositivity. This study provides the first large-scale serological evidence of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in alpacas and llamas in Italy, highlighting their widespread distribution and contributing valuable data to the national epidemiological scenario. Further studies are needed to evaluate the role of these parasites as cause of abortion.