Age effects in primary education: A double disadvantage for second‐generation immigrants

The immigrant background is an acknowledged source of disadvantage. We study whether this background interacts with absolute and relative age effects generating additional barriers—that is, a double disadvantage—for second-generation immigrant children in the Italian primary school. To identify these effects we exploit the variation given by the heterogeneity in children's birthdates and the fact that the test is given at two different points in time. We do find evidence of a double disadvantage that, relative to the average native, reduces scores in Italian by 3.2% and in Math by 3.4%. This suggests that controlling for age effects in class composition criteria can be used to promote integration because it delivers extra benefits to second-generation immigrant children.